The history of the technical innovations seen in Indonesian rubber growing is traced through three main periods: at the turn of the century, the introduction of rubber and the development of rubber agroforests (jungle rubber) by smallholders, from the 1970s onwards, the implementation of monoculture-based development projects, and from 1980 onwards, the adaptation of cropping systems. These new systems combine agroforestry practices and elements taken from monoculture, particularly the development of new smallholder strategies incorporating some of the more intensive technical packages disseminated via projects aimed at developing monoculture plantaitons. Smallholder involvement in the development or adoption of technical innovations is also discussed.